Foundations of Educational Реферат

This edition introduces the topics to be covered in more detail in subsequent volumes in the series. In addition, this volume establishes a general four-part, problem-centered framework that will be used in all volumes in this series. The chapters we summarized are connected with educational technologies and it occupies 120 pages of the book.

Part I of this volume provides an overview and introduction to the field of educational technology. Chapter topics include an elaborated definition of educational technology, a foundations and values perspective on educational technology, a discussion of learning and performance as well as teaching and training, issues pertaining to technology support, and integrative approaches to planning and implementing educational technologies.

Part II provides an elaboration of some of the theoretical perspectives informing the profession. Theories of human development, learning and performance, information and communications, instruction, and instructional design are reviewed. Leading researchers and scholars associated with the most influential theories are briefly discussed.

This is by no means a definitive treatise on educational technology. It is intended to be a useful work to help orient those new to the profession and discipline to the many dimensions of complexity with which educational technologists and instructional designers work. There are some discussions of theory and principles that might be regarded as scholarly tidbits, but there are also discussions of practical issues that are encountered in everyday practice. The intent is to blend theory and practice based on the notion that well-informed practitioners and well-grounded researchers are the kinds of people who contribute the most to the advancement of the broadly defined enterprise of educational technology. Research, development, and teaching involving educational technologies are inherently complex domains of inquiry and practice. 

This work introduces the topics to be covered in more detail in subsequent volumes in the series. 

This is by no means a definitive treatise on educational technology. It is intended to be a useful information to help orient those new to the profession and discipline to the many dimensions of complexity with which educational technologists and instructional designers work. There are some discussions of theory and principles that might be regarded as scholarly tidbits, but there are also discussions of practical issues that are encountered in everyday practice. The intent is to blend theory and practice based on the notion that well-informed practitioners and well-grounded researchers are the kinds of people who contribute the most to the advancement of the broadly defined enterprise of educational technology.

The aim of research is to summarize the information about the foundations of educational technologies.

The tasks of research are:

1) to define the terms “education” and “technology”;

2) to analyze the values, foundations and framework of the educational technologies;

3) to describe different teaching techniques;

4) to learn the  theories of human development, of  learning and performance, of information and communications;

5) to give the definition of the notion “instructional theories”.

The object of research is educational technologies.

The material of research – “Foundations of educational technologies” by J. Michael Spector, second edition (235 pages).

The word ‘technology’ is derived from two Greek words - techne (art, craft, or skill) and logia (words, study, or body of knowledge). The etymology of ‘technology’ suggests knowledge about making things.

The classical view of a definition involves the essence of the thing being defined - that which makes it what it is and not something else. One might be tempted to ask about the essence of technology, perhaps in the form of necessary and sufficient conditions or characteristics. However, a modern view of a definition also considers how the term is used. It is true that many people use the word ‘technology’ to refer to manufactured objects such as computers, telephones, and refrigerators.

This broad definition will allow to focus on different kinds of knowledge and different purposes to which that knowledge might be applied. Of course, the general purpose with which people are concerned is education, but this is also a broad area.

Education, like technology, is quite broad in terms of what it encompasses. The word ‘education’ comes from Latin educare, which means upbringing, training, or support based on the combination of ex or more simply e (from, or out of) and ducere (to lead, to guide). The derivation of the modern term is informative as it suggests that education involves a purpose or a goal, and a process of support or guidance toward the achievement of that goal.

The word ‘education’ is often combined with a modifier to indicate a subject area or general approach, as in ‘engineering education’ or ‘liberal education.’ Occasionally, one might hear someone sum up a particularly unusual or unexpected experience by saying “that was certainly educational”. 

The learning foundation pillar deserves emphasis and individual elaboration, because learning represents the bottom line in the use and integration of any educational technology. The purpose of education is to develop understanding and competence, and the goal of instruction is to promote the learning that informs understanding and underlies competence.

Learning processes are complicated. First, there are both cognitive and non-cognitive factors involved in learning. Motivation - the interest and willingness of a learner to commit time and effort to achieving desired outcomes – involves cognitive aspects and non-cognitive aspects. Formative assessment and learner feedback are critical factors in promoting effective learning processes.

The kinds of education involve intentional learning where a particular goal is involved. It is worth noting that the goals of a learner might not always coincide with the goals of an instructor. In formal learning environments, which generally involve intentional learning in school settings, it is optimal when the learner’s goals and those of the instructor are closely aligned.

Learning is marked by stable and persisting changes in attitudes, behaviors, beliefs, knowledge, mental models, skills, and so on. Learning may be planned or unintentional. Learning in which an individual is fully engaged is especially effective. Full engagement often involves perception, cognition, and emotions. Technology can be especially useful in promoting active engagement.

Learning fundamentally involves change. Relevant changes can be directly or indirectly observed as evidence that learning has occurred. Much learning is unplanned and incidentally associated with a variety of activities; much of the learning that occurs in educational programs is planned and intentional with specific goals and objectives. Planned learning activities typically occur in complex environments with many things that can enhance or inhibit learning.

There are many different opinions with regard to how technology can and should be used to support learning, instruction, and performance. First, it is obvious that there are many different kinds of technologies that might be used to support various educational goals and activities. Second, there are many different aspects of learning, instruction, and performance that might be supported with the various tools and technologies now available. It would be foolish to decide at the outset that there is only one kind of relevant technology and only one way that it should be used in support of any particular educational goal with a group of learners. In fact, deciding which technologies are relevant and how they are best deployed is a complex and challenging task. 

It is obvious that teachers and trainers support learning and performance directly. However, others are involved as well - namely, instructional designers, training managers, media and technology specialists, evaluators, and many more. All of those involved in supporting learning and performance may make use of technologies to make their support more effective, to make their efforts more productive, and perhaps to make better use of their time and expertise.

There is a number of things to consider when selecting a technology to support a particular activity. First, it should be the suitability of the tool for the intended task to be performed by specific individuals. While a particular tool might be the best one recommended for a particular task, its use by those involved might be problematic for a number of reasons. 

When selecting tools and technologies to support learning and performance, one ought to keep in mind the learning and performance goals and the likely users. It is tempting to use tools one already has even though those might not be optimal for the intended purpose. In addition, one ought to keep in mind the portability and ease of modification with regard to things created using various technologies. Technology changes and upgrades are always a factor.

Just as technologies change, so do humans. However, the changes within a human are quite different from changes in technology. Technologies evolve and new technologies are introduced on account of humans. Humans create and change technologies. Changes within a human are more complex. An individual human naturally changes over time. The physiological changes are perhaps most obvious as the infant becomes a child and matures into an adult. Those physiological changes tend to occur regardless of what other humans do or fail to do. 

Humans also develop psychologically and cognitively, in the sense that some things are simply not able to be easily understood at certain stages of development.  Language and experience play important roles in psychological and cognitive development.

Humans develop socially and culturally, although there is perhaps more variation in social and cultural development than in physiological or psychological development. 

Cognitive developmental theory is the notion that, as a person matures, he or she naturally progresses through different stages of cognitive development.

The emphasis in cognitive development theory is primarily on the individual. While cognitive development researchers acknowledge the influence of things outside the individual, the focus is on determining markers of individual progress and identifying different stages of cognitive development.

A theory of learning is intended to describe and explain how people learn, including the mechanisms and processes involved. A theory of learning provides a descriptive account of various aspects of learning, including such things as rates of learning and retention, limitations of memory, impediments to learning, and so on.